Chinese Dynasty: Tang Dynasty's Astounding Achievements and Legacy
The Tang Dynasty (唐朝, Táng, 618-907 CE), succeeding the short-lived Sui Dynasty (隋朝, 581-618 CE), graced China with its presence for nearly three centuries.
Inheriting and refining the administrative blueprint set by the Sui Dynasty, the Tang rulers fashioned a remarkably effective form of governance that became the bedrock of their enduring success. This period also saw an unparalleled cultural and artistic flourish that has since been hailed as a "golden age" of Chinese history. Distinguished as one of the most prosperous dynasties in Chinese history, the Tang era witnessed the peak of its civilization and became the center of trade in the East. The achievements of the Tang Dynasty continue to reverberate dynamically in our world today.
Our previous two articles went over Tang's history, from Tang's establishment to the Wu Zhou era, and then from the heyday of Tang to the end. In this article, we will explore the remarkable achievements and lasting impact of the Tang Dynasty.
Politics
Three Departments and Six Ministries (三省六部制)
A simplified graph illustrating the Three Departments and Six Ministries of the Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty retained the administrative structure from the Sui Dynasty, the Three Departments and Six Ministries (三省六部制). The Three Departments were the Department of State Affairs (尚书省), Central Secretariat (中书省), and Chancellery (门下省).
Department of State Affairs was the highest authority, split into six ministries (六部) overseeing various aspects, including ministries of Personnel (吏), Revenue (户), Rites (礼), War (兵), Justice (刑) and Works (工).
The Central Secretariat served as the primary agency responsible for formulating policies and drafting all imperial decrees.
The Chancellery provided counsel to the Emperor and the Central Secretariat and reviewed edicts and commands. It was the least important of the three departments.
Imperial Examination (科举制度)
During the Tang Dynasty, Confucian scholars could take imperial exams for government positions, which allowed talented individuals from all social backgrounds to join the government bureaucracy based on merit.
There were two types of exams, Mingjing (明经) and Jinshi (进士), which tested knowledge of Confucian classics and literary skills in governance-related essays and poetry composition.
The Tang aimed to establish non-aristocratic career officials through exams and equal property inheritance, breaking aristocratic influence. This competition system succeeded, and scholar-officials bridged the gap between people and government. This examination system lasted for many centuries to come, until the Qing Dynasty's (清朝) end in 1912.
Diplomatic Relations and Multiethnic Society
Map of major protectorates during the Tang Dynasty
The economy thrived during the Tang Dynasty, and society, technology, and culture were at the forefront globally, engaging in frequent cultural exchanges with many other countries. Along with the development of trade roads and well-connected transportation, the openness and inclusiveness of Tang significantly strengthened connections between the heartland and its frontier regions, leading to extensive interactions with foreign lands.
The Tang Dynasty holds a significant position in Chinese history of developing a unified multi-ethnic nation. Tang employed a vassalage policy (羁縻政策) towards neighboring ethnic groups, establishing close political and economic ties with various nations like the Turks (突厥), Uyghurs (回鹘), Tiele (铁勒), Khitans (契丹), Mohe (靺鞨), and Shiwei (室韦) through enfeoffment or marriage alliances. Emperor Taizong (唐太宗) was revered as the Heavenly Khan (天可汗) by different ethnic groups. Kingdoms like Nanzhao (南诏) and Bohai (渤海) sent envoys and students to Tang to learn its systems and culture, resulting in a period of significant cultural exchange and integration among different ethnic groups.
During the zenith of Tang's power (the 7th to early 8th century), its control expanded farther west than any previous dynasty, encompassing regions from northern Vietnam in the south, to north of Kashmir bordering Persia in the west, and reaching northern Korea in the northeast.
Numerous kingdoms paid tribute to Tang, including Kashmir, Nepal, Khotan (于阗), Kucha (龟兹), Shule (疏勒), Silla (新罗), Champa (占城), and those situated in the Amu Darya and Syr Darya valleys.
Socially, Tang displayed a remarkably open-minded attitude, embracing cultural elements from various nations and ethnic groups. The fusion of arts, including music and dance from the Western Regions, Buddhism from ancient India, and literary traditions from Japan and Korea, alongside the interplay with Tang culture, led to the remarkable cultural accomplishments of the era. Society welcomed foreign influences, and Chang'an (长安) emerged as a cultural hub, drawing people from around the world and emissaries seeking to learn from the Tang Dynasty.
Economy
Map of Eurasia and Africa showing trade networks in 870 CE
The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous and powerful period in Chinese history, marked by substantial economic growth and expansion. The implementation of policies like the equal-field system (均田制) and the continuous economic progress in the Jiangnan region (江南) contributed to its economic strength. Tang's control over both northern and southern economies played a crucial role, enabling economic recovery even after the An Lushan Rebellion (安史之乱).
The Tang's urban prosperity was closely connected to the growth of commerce and industry. Chang'an (长安) and Luoyang (洛阳) stood out as thriving centers, with Chang'an being a global metropolis.
The acquisition of new technologies, cultural practices, luxury items, and contemporary goods was achieved through land trade along the Silk Road and maritime trade. This allowed Tang to acquire diverse influences from Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Trade was facilitated within China by the Grand Canal, while a vast postal system managed communication and transportation.
Population
The chaotic end of the Sui Dynasty (隋朝) resulted in a population decline, and there were only about 2 million households during Emperor Gaozu's (唐高祖) reign. The population had grown significantly over the years, and during Emperor Xuanzong's (唐玄宗) reign, the highest recorded official household counted approximately 10 million households with over 50 million people. However, after the An Lushan Rebellion, disorder led to population inaccuracies. Scholars estimate that the population peaked at about 60 million during the late Tang Dynasty.
Taxation
In early Tang, taxes were collected based on population and land through the Rent-in-Kind and Corvée System. In 780 CE, Emperor Dezong (唐德宗) implemented the Two-Tax Law (两税法, a semiannual taxation system), which shifted from collecting physical goods to focusing on monetary taxes. This reform marked a major shift in China's taxation history, emphasizing assets over individuals and reducing state control over land ownership.
Agriculture and Handicrafts
Ceramics made during the Tang Dynasty
Advancements in agricultural tools like the mature plow and new irrigation devices took place. Water conservancy projects thrived, leading to increased grain production and low rice prices. However, the An Lushan Rebellion disrupted northern society and caused a southward population movement, shifting the economic focus southward.
Notable handicraft advancements took place, especially ceramics with vibrant colors, such as celadon from Yue kiln (越州窑) and white porcelain from Xing ware (邢州窑). Jingdezhen (景德镇) produced exquisite porcelain, earning the name of "imitation jade artifacts" (假玉器). The Tang Tri-Color Glazed Ceramics (唐三彩, Táng sān cǎi), featuring lively sculptures, were particularly distinctive.
Transportation
Tang's well-developed transportation network facilitated a system of land and waterway routes with inns and stations set up by the government. Southern hubs like Guangzhou (广州) were key trading centers, connecting goods from both northern and southern regions and facilitating international trade with regions like Japan, Korea, and the Middle East.
The Tang Dynasty's foreign trade prospered not only along the traditional Silk Road but also through various other routes like the Grassland Silk Road (草原丝路), Qinghai Silk Road (青海丝路/唐蕃古道), Southwest Silk Road (西南丝路/西南夷道), and Maritime Silk Road (海上丝绸之路).
Currency
Kaiyuan Tongbao coins
The Tang Dynasty established its own currency system, replacing the five-baht coins (or Wu Zhu, 五铢钱) with the Kaiyuan Tongbao (开元通宝) coins in 621 CE. This marked the official status of the state currency. They also adopted a dual currency system, using both copper coins and various silk fabrics. However, despite strict laws against counterfeiting, private coin minting remained profitable due to copper shortages.
Commerce flourished during the late Tang, leading to the emergence of storage and wholesale facilities for merchants. Credit notes and vouchers called Fei Qian (飞钱, "fly money") facilitated long-distance trade.
Science and Technology
A 10th-century mural painting in the Mogao Caves showing monastic architecture from Mount Wutai, Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty witnessed significant technological advancements in various fields.
Tang's architecture showcased grandeur and precision, exemplified by structures like the Daming Palace (大明宫). Even Japan's Heian-kyo emulated Tang's urban layout and architecture.
Shipbuilding prospered, creating vessels of varying sizes. The Tang's sea vessels were large-scale and regularly connected Tang with countries in the South China Sea, reflecting frequent trade and cultural exchanges.
Tang's woodblock printing advanced and was widely adopted, evidenced by the Dharani Mantra (《陀罗尼经咒》) and Diamond Sutra (《金刚经》) discovered in Chengdu (成都) and Dunhuang (敦煌), respectively.
As for medicine, Xinxiu Bencao (《新修本草》), the earliest national pharmacopeia, was compiled during the reign of Emperor Gaozong (唐高宗). "Medicine King" (药王) Sun Simiao (孙思邈), documented the "concealing fire" technique for sulfur, marking the first recorded gunpowder formula. In the late Tang, gunpowder was applied in warfare, leading to the creation of the initial gunpowder weapon, the "fire arrow" (火箭). Later, gunpowder spread to Europe through Arab channels, profoundly influencing global civilization.
For astronomy, monk Yi Xing (一行) observed shifts in star positions and, for the first time, measured the length of the meridian line.
For cartography, Jia Dan (贾耽) made the map Hainei Huayi Tu (《海内华夷图》, "Map of Chinese and non-Chinese Territories in the World"), which used a scale of one inch to represent a hundred miles, advancing cartography further.
Culture
Tang culture was characterized by its vast content, grandeur, open-mindedness, and vibrant spirit. The flourishing economy, strong national presence, well-developed transportation, and active international interactions during the Tang Dynasty provided a solid foundation for cultural development, fostering creativity and self-confidence among the people.
Literature
Left: a portrait of Li Bai. Right: a part of the only surviving calligraphy in Li Bai's own handwriting, Shangyangtai (to Yangtai Temple).
The most remarkable achievement of Tang's literature was its poetry, which can be divided into periods of Early Tang (初唐), High Tang (or Flourishing Tang, 盛唐), Mid-Tang (中唐), and Late Tang (晚唐). Early Tang was represented by Chen Zi'ang (陈子昂); Flourishing Tang featured poets like Li Bai (李白), Du Fu (杜甫), and Wang Wei (王维); Mid-Tang was characterized by figures such as Bai Juyi (白居易) and Liu Yuxi (刘禹锡); Late Tang included poets like Li Shangyin (李商隐) and Du Mu (杜牧). Among them, Li Bai and Du Fu were two of the most prominent poets in Chinese history.
These poets exhibited diverse styles, encompassing rich imaginations of mythical realms as well as vivid depictions of real-life experiences. Ranging from passionate and robust borderland verses to introspective and weighty realism, their works together formed outstanding representatives of ancient Chinese literature, with Tang poetry standing as an unsurpassable pinnacle in ancient Chinese poetry.
Tang also excelled in various forms of literature. Prose writing reached its pinnacle with prominent figures like Han Yu (韩愈) and Liu Zongyuan (柳宗元).
Scene from Romance of the Western Chamber, an opera inspired by Yingying's Biography
The era witnessed the emergence of short story fiction and tales, known as Tang Chuanqi (唐传奇, "Tang Legend"), including tales of the supernatural, love stories, and chivalry. Notable examples include Yingying's Biography by Yuan Zhen (《莺莺传》, 元稹) and Story of Liu Yi by Li Chaowei (《柳毅传》, 李朝威).
The term "drama" also emerged during Tang. Tang drama was influenced by the theater of the Western Regions (西域) and also incorporated elements from ancient Indian Sanskrit drama, resulting in the distinctive Tang theatrical tradition. This tradition spread to the Korean Peninsula, ancient Japan, and beyond.
As for history, numerous historical books were written, and eight of the Twenty-Four Histories (二十四史) were composed by Tang scholars, including the Book of Jin (《晋书》), Book of Liang (《梁书》), Book of Chen (《陈书》), Book of Northern Qi (《北齐书》), Book of Zhou (《周书》), Book of Sui (《隋书》), History of Northern Dynasties (《北史》) and the History of Southern Dynasties (《南史》). These texts organized historical records spanning about three hundred years of complex events from the late 3rd to early 7th centuries, providing valuable insights for future research.
Additionally, tea culture also flourished, led by the "Tea Sage" Lu Yu (陆羽), who wrote the world's first tea-specific book, The Classic of Tea (《茶经》).
Art
A part of the Portraits of Periodical Offering of Tang, depicting foreign envoys with tribute bearers by Yan Liben
The painting art of the Tang Dynasty was notably distinct from other dynasties. Early Tang artists like Yan Liben (阎立本) and Yan Lide (阎立德) brothers excelled in portraying figures, while Wu Daozi (吴道子) from mid-Tang was known for his skill in figures and landscapes, influenced by Western Regions' techniques. Zhang Xuan (张萱) and Zhou Fang (周昉) were known for their depictions of palace ladies. And poet Wang Wei (王维) also excelled in ink landscape painting.
Mural art also developed during the Tang, evident in the Mogao Caves (莫高窟) and tomb murals. Carving arts also flourished in places like Dunhuang (敦煌), Longmen (龙门), Maijishan (麦积山), and Bingling Temple (炳灵寺) Grottoes. The Lushena Buddha (卢舍那大佛) in Longmen and the Leshan Giant Buddha (乐山大佛) are remarkable achievements.
Many famous calligraphers emerged. There were prominent calligraphers like Ouyang Xun (欧阳询), Yu Shinan (虞世南), Yan Zhenqing (颜真卿), and Liu Gongquan (柳公权). Among them, Yan Zhenqing's bold and robust script, and Liu Gongquan's vigorous style became influential. Their combined styles influenced later calligraphy and led to the Yan style (颜体) and Liu style (柳体).
Tang's dance evolved by blending Sui Dynasty elements and integrating traditional Han ethnic dances from the Southern Dynasties (南朝) and dances from various ethnic groups in the Northern Dynasties (北朝). The era saw a wide range of dances, from popular folk dances to grand court performances. The Tang court established institutions to oversee dance, and Emperor Xuanzong even created a dedicated place for practicing and performing singing and dancing. The Tang dances showcased diversity, incorporating both local creations and energetic dances from the Western Regions.
Religion and Philosophy
The Tang Dynasty was a period of flourishing Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, forming the core of traditional Chinese culture. Buddhism, introduced during the Han Dynasty, underwent significant development, especially during the Sui and Tang Dynasties. Notably, Xuanzang's (玄奘) journey to India led to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The interaction with China's developed culture contributed to creative growth in Buddhism and philosophy.
Zen Buddhism (禅宗) emerged as a prominent sect, characterized by concepts like "no reliance on words" (不立文字) and "transmission outside scriptures" (教外别传). Buddhist ideas on the mind and nature influenced the transformation of Confucianism, impacting later Confucian thought.
Daoism witnessed the fusion of various sects, establishing teachings and rituals. Daoism incorporated Buddhist philosophy for theoretical enrichment, while Buddhism adopted Daoist rituals.
Additionally, other religions like Zoroastrianism (袄教), Islam (伊斯兰教), Manichaeism (摩尼教), and Nestorianism (景教) entered China, profoundly influencing the spiritual lives of Chinese and East Asian communities.
Read More
History of the Tang Dynasty from its establishment to the Wu Zhou era
History of the Tang Dynasty from restoration after Wu Zhou to the end
